Comments on: Exercising the body is exercising the mind http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/ Brain Fitness and Cognitive Health news Fri, 09 Jan 2009 22:13:39 +0000 http://wordpress.org/?v=2.0.5 by: Adrian Preda http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-223638 Sat, 03 Jan 2009 06:38:42 +0000 http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-223638 Hi Susan, Here are a few of my non-systematic observations. Great communicators can be fit or fat. Also, some very fit people tend to be more comfortable at the gym rather than in a social setting. Hi Susan,

Here are a few of my non-systematic observations. Great communicators can be fit or fat. Also, some very fit people tend to be more comfortable at the gym rather than in a social setting.

]]> by: Adrian Preda http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-223530 Fri, 02 Jan 2009 22:54:08 +0000 http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-223530 Ilan, Answer to #1: Can you please indicate the reference? I can only speculate here (please understand that I am really going on a limb without knowing the details of the experiment). Here is a possible interpretation: we might need to reach outside and pick activities that normally lie outside our comfort zone (“inborn predisposition”) if we are to get maximum brain points. I.e., a runner might get greater brain benefits from spending time in a library, while a library rat might be well served by getting some treadmill time under his belt. Answer to #2: What was the time frame of this experiment? How was neurogenesis quantified? It is a known that clinical response lags way behind “objective“ brain changes when it comes to depression. While most antidepressants (ADs) increase the level of neurotransmitters in the synapse days after they are administered, the full clinical response is not seen until 6-8 weeks after treatment initiation. Ilan,
Answer to #1:
Can you please indicate the reference? I can only speculate here (please understand that I am really going on a limb without knowing the details of the experiment). Here is a possible interpretation: we might need to reach outside and pick activities that normally lie outside our comfort zone (“inborn predisposition”) if we are to get maximum brain points. I.e., a runner might get greater brain benefits from spending time in a library, while a library rat might be well served by getting some treadmill time under his belt.
Answer to #2:
What was the time frame of this experiment? How was neurogenesis quantified? It is a known that clinical response lags way behind “objective“ brain changes when it comes to depression. While most antidepressants (ADs) increase the level of neurotransmitters in the synapse days after they are administered, the full clinical response is not seen until 6-8 weeks after treatment initiation.

]]> by: Adrian Preda http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-223526 Fri, 02 Jan 2009 22:38:56 +0000 http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-223526 Ilan, I agree – exactly how neurogenesis correlates with brain performance is still to be determined. That being said, there is plenty of empirical data coming from the animal litt. showing that increased neurogenesis correlates with improved performance. Also, there is accumulating evidence that a lack of neurogenesis is bad for the brain. For example, patients with depressive disorders or post-traumatic stress disorder have reduced hippocampal volume. Now, while the jury is still out in terms of determining if this is a cause or an effect, the fact is that the hippocampus is the neurogenesis star when it comes to the adult brain. So, while there is no direct evidence linking neurogenesis and performance in humans, the circumstantial evidence is pretty compelling. Ilan,
I agree – exactly how neurogenesis correlates with brain performance is still to be determined. That being said, there is plenty of empirical data coming from the animal litt. showing that increased neurogenesis correlates with improved performance. Also, there is accumulating evidence that a lack of neurogenesis is bad for the brain. For example, patients with depressive disorders or post-traumatic stress disorder have reduced hippocampal volume. Now, while the jury is still out in terms of determining if this is a cause or an effect, the fact is that the hippocampus is the neurogenesis star when it comes to the adult brain. So, while there is no direct evidence linking neurogenesis and performance in humans, the circumstantial evidence is pretty compelling.

]]> by: Ilan Kerman http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-222408 Tue, 30 Dec 2008 03:35:46 +0000 http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-222408 While the evidence you cite for neurogenesis and its association with exercise is certainly interesting and potentially important, it is important to keep in mind that it is not clear whether neurogenesis is indeed the mechanism that underlies improved brain function. I certainly would like neurogenesis to do all of these wonderful things, however, what about the following observations: 1) mice that have inborn predisposition to increased wheel running actually have lower (or no different) levels of neurogenesis than their less active counterparts exposed to running wheels 2) I am aware of only one study that reported differences in neurogenesis in depressed patients. These data were recently presented by the group of Dr. Victoria Arango and Dr. John Mann of Columbia University at the recent Society for Neuroscience meeting. These investigators found lare increases in neurogenesis in depressed individuals treated with antidepressants vs. non-treated depressives and non-depressed controls. Yet, patients in both depressed groups (those on anti-depressants and those not treated) were equivalently depressed. Clearly these examples indicate that our knowledge about the role of neurogenesis is imperfect. What about alternative mechanisms? Such as changes in serotonergic, noradrenergic, and/or dopaminergic neurotransmission? All of these transmitter systems are impacted by exercise, and all are known to affect mood, affect, and overall brain function. While the evidence you cite for neurogenesis and its association with exercise is certainly interesting and potentially important, it is important to keep in mind that it is not clear whether neurogenesis is indeed the mechanism that underlies improved brain function. I certainly would like neurogenesis to do all of these wonderful things, however, what about the following observations:

1) mice that have inborn predisposition to increased wheel running actually have lower (or no different) levels of neurogenesis than their less active counterparts exposed to running wheels

2) I am aware of only one study that reported differences in neurogenesis in depressed patients. These data were recently presented by the group of Dr. Victoria Arango and Dr. John Mann of Columbia University at the recent Society for Neuroscience meeting. These investigators found lare increases in neurogenesis in depressed individuals treated with antidepressants vs. non-treated depressives and non-depressed controls. Yet, patients in both depressed groups (those on anti-depressants and those not treated) were equivalently depressed.

Clearly these examples indicate that our knowledge about the role of neurogenesis is imperfect. What about alternative mechanisms? Such as changes in serotonergic, noradrenergic, and/or dopaminergic neurotransmission? All of these transmitter systems are impacted by exercise, and all are known to affect mood, affect, and overall brain function.

]]> by: Susan Smirnoff http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-202687 Tue, 04 Nov 2008 20:26:01 +0000 http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-202687 Is there research specific to the role of physical exercise on the ability to be a more effective communicator? Is there research specific to the role of physical exercise on the ability to be a more effective communicator?

]]> by: Encefalus http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-184654 Mon, 08 Sep 2008 17:42:17 +0000 http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-184654 Thnx for the article. I feel better about my weightlifting training now :) Thnx for the article. I feel better about my weightlifting training now :)

]]> by: Alvaro Fernandez http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-183200 Tue, 02 Sep 2008 16:14:42 +0000 http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-183200 Mark, thank you for that excellent context. Merri, great to hear you are feeling so well now! Tim: I will let Adrian answer your superb questions, but you probably saw in the Comments to the previous post that the main message here is DON'T BE SEDENTARY, do at least 2-3 weekly sessions of cardio exercise (any intensity). Mark, thank you for that excellent context.

Merri, great to hear you are feeling so well now!

Tim: I will let Adrian answer your superb questions, but you probably saw in the Comments to the previous post that the main message here is DON'T BE SEDENTARY, do at least 2-3 weekly sessions of cardio exercise (any intensity).

]]> by: Tim http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-182289 Fri, 29 Aug 2008 16:05:52 +0000 http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-182289 Dr. Preda, Congratulations on your new baby! I just read your previous post and the comments. While I think any one of the twelve items you mentioned at the end would be interesting, I think the most interesting would be any clarification on the "dosage" of exercise that you allude to and seems to be a main interest of yours already. Specifically, what types of exercise are most effective? High intesity aerobic (i.e. running), low intensity aerobic (i.e. walking), strength, stretching, or perhaps a sport with more varied requirements? What is the minimum required to see a benefit? Is there a plateau? Is there a point when exercise becomes detrimental? While I'm sure you could add to the forum in any number of ways, plenty of people are talking about the many brain benefits of exercise. Far fewer, it seems to me, are talking about the parameters of the exercise itself, and how to best realize those benefits. Dr. Preda,

Congratulations on your new baby!

I just read your previous post and the comments. While I think any one of the twelve items you mentioned at the end would be interesting, I think the most interesting would be any clarification on the "dosage" of exercise that you allude to and seems to be a main interest of yours already. Specifically, what types of exercise are most effective? High intesity aerobic (i.e. running), low intensity aerobic (i.e. walking), strength, stretching, or perhaps a sport with more varied requirements? What is the minimum required to see a benefit? Is there a plateau? Is there a point when exercise becomes detrimental? While I'm sure you could add to the forum in any number of ways, plenty of people are talking about the many brain benefits of exercise. Far fewer, it seems to me, are talking about the parameters of the exercise itself, and how to best realize those benefits.

]]> by: merri ellen http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-182202 Fri, 29 Aug 2008 04:57:38 +0000 http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-182202 When I suffered from depression and got no help from anti depressants, I searched the medical journals to discover that exercise is actually more effective than any antidepressant. It is the most underrated cure for depression because it is so often scoffed at and needless to say, difficult to be motivated to do. But, it has by far the better side effects! :) When I begin to feel blue, I lift weights or go for a walk or bike ride. I am now depression free for 6 years thanks to implementing a regular exercise routine as the first part of my recovery plan and now lifestyle. When I suffered from depression and got no help from anti depressants, I searched the medical journals to discover that exercise is actually more effective than any antidepressant.

It is the most underrated cure for depression because it is so often scoffed at and needless to say, difficult to be motivated to do.
But, it has by far the better side effects! :)

When I begin to feel blue, I lift weights or go for a walk or bike ride.

I am now depression free for 6 years thanks to implementing a regular exercise routine as the first part of my recovery plan and now lifestyle.

]]> by: Mark Waldman http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-182157 Fri, 29 Aug 2008 00:16:06 +0000 http://www.sharpbrains.com/blog/2008/08/23/exercising-the-body-is-exercising-the-mind/#comment-182157 Dr. Andrew Newberg and I, at the University of Pennsylvania's Center for Spirituality and the Mind, heartily concur with Dr. Preda. In fact, in our forthcoming book (How God Changes Your Brain) we cite considerable evidence that aerobic exercise is one of the three best ways to exercise your brain (meditation-which is our field of research-only came in fourth). Brain scans show that vigorous exercise strengthens every part of the brain, and if you’re between the ages of 18 and 90, exercise is going to lengthen your life by about 10%. Exercise can even be viewed as a form of meditation because it involves sustained concentration and a deliberate regulation of body movements and breathing. Vigorous stretching, such as yoga, also does wonders for your brain. In a recent meta-analysis of 813 meditation studies, the researchers stated that yoga was as beneficial as exercise. It can even prevent the onslaught of migraine headaches. In a study conducted in 2007, researchers at the Boston University School of Medicine found that levels of the neurotransmitter GABA increase after a single 60-minute yoga session. Since people who suffer from depression and anxiety disorders have low levels GABA, yoga exercise, as well as other forms of aerobic exercise, is a valid modality for improving psychological and mental health. It even has been found to reduce the symptoms of schizophrenia. Exercise enhances a wide range of cognitive skills in children and adults. All forms of exercise enhance neural plasticity and rebuild damaged circuits caused by brain lesions and strokes. Exercise improves cognition and academic performance. It repairs and protects you from the neurological damage caused by stress. It enhances brain plasticity. It boosts immune function. It reduces anxiety. It can be used to treat clinical depression and it is just as effective as antidepressants. In fact, for older patients, exercise is equivalent to twelve sessions of psychodynamic psychotherapy. It slows down the loss of brain tissue as you age, protects you from Alzheimer’s disease, and reduces your vulnerability to chronic illness. Need I say anything more to convince you of the importance of exercise? But don't take my word for it; check the references I cite below that support the claims made above. Mark Waldman Associate Fellow Center for Spirituality and the Mind University of Pennsylvania Yates LB, Djoussé L, Kurth T, Buring JE, Gaziano JM. Exceptional longevity in men: modifiable factors associated with survival and function to age 90 years. Arch Intern Med. 2008 Feb 11;168(3):284-90. Barclay L. Exercise May Have Neuroprotective Effect. Medscape Medical News (medscape.com). Knobf MT, Musanti R, Dorward J. Exercise and quality of life outcomes in patients with cancer. Semin Oncol Nurs. 2007 Nov;23(4):285-96. John PJ, Sharma N, Sharma CM, Kankane A. Effectiveness of yoga therapy in the treatment of migraine without aura: a randomized controlled trial. Headache. 2007 May;47(5):654-61. Streeter CC, Jensen JE, Perlmutter RM, Cabral HJ, Tian H, Terhune DB, Ciraulo DA, Renshaw PF. Yoga Asana Sessions Increase Brain GABA Levels: A Pilot Study. J Altern Complement Med. 2007 May;13(4):419-26. See also: Harinath K, Malhotra AS, Pal K, Prasad R, Kumar R, Kain TC, Rai L, Sawhney RC. Effects of Hatha yoga and Omkar meditation on cardiorespiratory performance, psychologic profile, and melatonin secretion. J Altern Complement Med. 2004 Apr;10(2):261-8. Duraiswamy G, Thirthalli J, Nagendra HR, Gangadhar BN. Yoga therapy as an add-on treatment in the management of patients with schizophrenia - a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2007 Sep;116(3):226-32. Telles S, Praghuraj P, Ghosh A, Nagendra HR. Effect of a one-month yoga training program on performance in a mirror-tracing task. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2006 Apr-Jun;50(2):187-90. Telles S, Hanumanthaiah BH, Nagarathna R, Nagendra HR. Plasticity of motor control systems demonstrated by yoga training. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 1994 Apr;38(2):143-4. Manjunath NK, Telles S. Improved performance in the Tower of London test following yoga. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2001 Jul;45(3):351-4. Telles S, Hanumanthaiah B, Nagarathna R, Nagendra HR. Improvement in static motor performance following yogic training of school children. Percept Mot Skills. 1993 Jun;76(3 Pt 2):1264-6. White LJ, Castellano V. Exercise and brain health - implications for multiple sclerosis : part 1 - neuronal growth factors. Sports Med. 2008;38(2):91-100. Vaynman, S. and F. Gomez‐Pinilla (2005). License to run: Exercise impacts functional plasticity in the intact and injured central nervous system by using neurotrophins. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 19(4): 283-295. McMorris T, Collard K, Corbett J, Dicks M, Swain JP. A test of the catecholamines hypothesis for an acute exercise-cognition interaction. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2008 Mar;89(1):106-15. Hillman CH, Erickson KI, Kramer AF. Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008 Jan;9(1):58-65. Tomporowski, P. D. (2003). Effects of acute bouts of exercise on cognition. Acta Psychologica 112(3): 297-324. Radak Z, Kumagai S, Taylor AW, Naito H, Goto S. Effects of exercise on brain function: role of free radicals. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2007 Oct;32(5):942-6. Cotman CW, Berchtold NC, Christie LA. Exercise builds brain health: key roles of growth factor cascades and inflammation. Trends Neurosci. 2007 Sep;30(9):464-72. Dishman RK, Berthoud HR, Booth FW, Cotman CW, Edgerton VR, Fleshner MR, Gandevia SC, Gomez-Pinilla F, Greenwood BN, Hillman CH, Kramer AF, Levin BE, Moran TH, Russo-Neustadt AA, Salamone JD, Van Hoomissen JD, Wade CE, York DA, Zigmond MJ. Neurobiology of exercise. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006 Mar;14(3):345-56. Campisi J, Leem TH, Greenwood BN, Hansen MK, Moraska A, Higgins K, Smith TP, Fleshner M. Habitual physical activity facilitates stress-induced HSP72 induction in brain, peripheral, and immune tissues. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2003 Feb;284(2):R520-30. Trejo JL, Llorens-Martín MV, Torres-Alemán I. The effects of exercise on spatial learning and anxiety-like behavior are mediated by an IGF-I-dependent mechanism related to hippocampal neurogenesis. Mol Cell Neurosci. 2008 Feb;37(2):402-11. Guszkowska M. Effects of exercise on anxiety, depression and mood. Psychiatr Pol. 2004 Jul-Aug;38(4):611-20. Scully D, Kremer J, Meade MM, Graham R, Dudgeon K. Physical exercise and psychological well being: a critical review. Br J Sports Med. 1998 Jun;32(2):111-20. Byrne A, Byrne DG. The effect of exercise on depression, anxiety and other mood states: a review. J Psychosom Res. 1993 Sep;37(6):565-74. Petruzzello SJ, Landers DM, Hatfield BD, Kubitz KA, Salazar W. A meta-analysis on the anxiety-reducing effects of acute and chronic exercise. Outcomes and mechanisms. Sports Med. 1991 Mar;11(3):143-82. Broocks A, Ahrendt U, Sommer M. Physical training in the treatment of depressive disorders. Psychiatr Prax. 2007 Sep;34 Suppl 3:S300-4. Meeusen R. Exercise and the brain: insight in new therapeutic modalities. Ann Transplant. 2005;10(4):49-51. Blumenthal JA, Babyak MA, Doraiswamy PM, Watkins L, Hoffman BM, Barbour KA, Herman S, Craighead WE, Brosse AL, Waugh R, Hinderliter A, Sherwood A. Exercise and pharmacotherapy in the treatment of major depressive disorder. Psychosom Med. 2007 Sep-Oct;69(7):587-96. Colcombe SJ, Erickson KI, Raz N, Webb AG, Cohen NJ, McAuley E, Kramer AF. Aerobic fitness reduces brain tissue loss in aging humans. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2003 Feb;58(2):176-80. Adlard PA, Perreau VM, Pop V, Cotman CW. Voluntary exercise decreases amyloid load in a transgenic model of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurosci. 2005 Apr 27;25(17):4217-21. Dr. Andrew Newberg and I, at the University of Pennsylvania's Center for Spirituality and the Mind, heartily concur with Dr. Preda. In fact, in our forthcoming book (How God Changes Your Brain) we cite considerable evidence that aerobic exercise is one of the three best ways to exercise your brain (meditation-which is our field of research-only came in fourth). Brain scans show that vigorous exercise strengthens every part of the brain, and if you’re between the ages of 18 and 90, exercise is going to lengthen your life by about 10%.

Exercise can even be viewed as a form of meditation because it involves sustained concentration and a deliberate regulation of body movements and breathing.
Vigorous stretching, such as yoga, also does wonders for your brain. In a recent meta-analysis of 813 meditation studies, the researchers stated that yoga was as beneficial as exercise. It can even prevent the onslaught of migraine headaches.
In a study conducted in 2007, researchers at the Boston University School of Medicine found that levels of the neurotransmitter GABA increase after a single 60-minute yoga session. Since people who suffer from depression and anxiety disorders have low levels GABA, yoga exercise, as well as other forms of aerobic exercise, is a valid modality for improving psychological and mental health. It even has been found to reduce the symptoms of schizophrenia.

Exercise enhances a wide range of cognitive skills in children and adults.
All forms of exercise enhance neural plasticity and rebuild damaged circuits caused by brain lesions and strokes. Exercise improves cognition and academic performance. It repairs and protects you from the neurological damage caused by stress. It enhances brain plasticity. It boosts immune function. It reduces anxiety. It can be used to treat clinical depression and it is just as effective as antidepressants. In fact, for older patients, exercise is equivalent to twelve sessions of psychodynamic psychotherapy. It slows down the loss of brain tissue as you age, protects you from Alzheimer’s disease, and reduces your vulnerability to chronic illness. Need I say anything more to convince you of the importance of exercise? But don't take my word for it; check the references I cite below that support the claims made above.

Mark Waldman
Associate Fellow
Center for Spirituality and the Mind
University of Pennsylvania

Yates LB, Djoussé L, Kurth T, Buring JE, Gaziano JM. Exceptional longevity in men: modifiable factors associated with survival and function to age 90 years. Arch Intern Med. 2008 Feb 11;168(3):284-90.

Barclay L. Exercise May Have Neuroprotective Effect. Medscape Medical News (medscape.com).

Knobf MT, Musanti R, Dorward J. Exercise and quality of life outcomes in patients with cancer. Semin Oncol Nurs. 2007 Nov;23(4):285-96.

John PJ, Sharma N, Sharma CM, Kankane A. Effectiveness of yoga therapy in the treatment of migraine without aura: a randomized controlled trial. Headache. 2007 May;47(5):654-61.

Streeter CC, Jensen JE, Perlmutter RM, Cabral HJ, Tian H, Terhune DB, Ciraulo DA, Renshaw PF. Yoga Asana Sessions Increase Brain GABA Levels: A Pilot Study. J Altern Complement Med. 2007 May;13(4):419-26. See also: Harinath K, Malhotra AS, Pal K, Prasad R, Kumar R, Kain TC, Rai L, Sawhney RC. Effects of Hatha yoga and Omkar meditation on cardiorespiratory performance, psychologic profile, and melatonin secretion. J Altern Complement Med. 2004 Apr;10(2):261-8.

Duraiswamy G, Thirthalli J, Nagendra HR, Gangadhar BN. Yoga therapy as an add-on treatment in the management of patients with schizophrenia - a randomized controlled trial. Acta Psychiatr Scand. 2007 Sep;116(3):226-32.

Telles S, Praghuraj P, Ghosh A, Nagendra HR. Effect of a one-month yoga training program on performance in a mirror-tracing task. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2006 Apr-Jun;50(2):187-90.

Telles S, Hanumanthaiah BH, Nagarathna R, Nagendra HR. Plasticity of motor control systems demonstrated by yoga training. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 1994 Apr;38(2):143-4.

Manjunath NK, Telles S. Improved performance in the Tower of London test following yoga. Indian J Physiol Pharmacol. 2001 Jul;45(3):351-4.

Telles S, Hanumanthaiah B, Nagarathna R, Nagendra HR. Improvement in static motor performance following yogic training of school children. Percept Mot Skills. 1993 Jun;76(3 Pt 2):1264-6.

White LJ, Castellano V. Exercise and brain health - implications for multiple sclerosis : part 1 - neuronal growth factors. Sports Med. 2008;38(2):91-100.

Vaynman, S. and F. Gomez‐Pinilla (2005). License to run: Exercise impacts functional plasticity in the intact and injured central nervous system by using neurotrophins. Neurorehabilitation and Neural Repair 19(4): 283-295.

McMorris T, Collard K, Corbett J, Dicks M, Swain JP. A test of the catecholamines hypothesis for an acute exercise-cognition interaction. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2008 Mar;89(1):106-15.

Hillman CH, Erickson KI, Kramer AF. Be smart, exercise your heart: exercise effects on brain and cognition. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2008 Jan;9(1):58-65.

Tomporowski, P. D. (2003). Effects of acute bouts of exercise on cognition. Acta Psychologica 112(3): 297-324.

Radak Z, Kumagai S, Taylor AW, Naito H, Goto S. Effects of exercise on brain function: role of free radicals. Appl Physiol Nutr Metab. 2007 Oct;32(5):942-6.

Cotman CW, Berchtold NC, Christie LA. Exercise builds brain health: key roles of growth factor cascades and inflammation. Trends Neurosci. 2007 Sep;30(9):464-72.

Dishman RK, Berthoud HR, Booth FW, Cotman CW, Edgerton VR, Fleshner MR, Gandevia SC, Gomez-Pinilla F, Greenwood BN, Hillman CH, Kramer AF, Levin BE, Moran TH, Russo-Neustadt AA, Salamone JD, Van Hoomissen JD, Wade CE, York DA, Zigmond MJ. Neurobiology of exercise. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2006 Mar;14(3):345-56.

Campisi J, Leem TH, Greenwood BN, Hansen MK, Moraska A, Higgins K, Smith TP, Fleshner M. Habitual physical activity facilitates stress-induced HSP72 induction in brain, peripheral, and immune tissues. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2003 Feb;284(2):R520-30.

Trejo JL, Llorens-Martín MV, Torres-Alemán I. The effects of exercise on spatial learning and anxiety-like behavior are mediated by an IGF-I-dependent mechanism related to hippocampal neurogenesis. Mol Cell Neurosci. 2008 Feb;37(2):402-11.

Guszkowska M. Effects of exercise on anxiety, depression and mood. Psychiatr Pol. 2004 Jul-Aug;38(4):611-20.

Scully D, Kremer J, Meade MM, Graham R, Dudgeon K. Physical exercise and psychological well being: a critical review. Br J Sports Med. 1998 Jun;32(2):111-20.

Byrne A, Byrne DG. The effect of exercise on depression, anxiety and other mood states: a review. J Psychosom Res. 1993 Sep;37(6):565-74.

Petruzzello SJ, Landers DM, Hatfield BD, Kubitz KA, Salazar W. A meta-analysis on the anxiety-reducing effects of acute and chronic exercise. Outcomes and mechanisms. Sports Med. 1991 Mar;11(3):143-82.

Broocks A, Ahrendt U, Sommer M. Physical training in the treatment of depressive disorders. Psychiatr Prax. 2007 Sep;34 Suppl 3:S300-4.

Meeusen R. Exercise and the brain: insight in new therapeutic modalities. Ann Transplant. 2005;10(4):49-51.

Blumenthal JA, Babyak MA, Doraiswamy PM, Watkins L, Hoffman BM, Barbour KA, Herman S, Craighead WE, Brosse AL, Waugh R, Hinderliter A, Sherwood A. Exercise and pharmacotherapy in the treatment of major depressive disorder. Psychosom Med. 2007 Sep-Oct;69(7):587-96.

Colcombe SJ, Erickson KI, Raz N, Webb AG, Cohen NJ, McAuley E, Kramer AF. Aerobic fitness reduces brain tissue loss in aging humans. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci. 2003 Feb;58(2):176-80.

Adlard PA, Perreau VM, Pop V, Cotman CW. Voluntary exercise decreases amyloid load in a transgenic model of Alzheimer's disease. J Neurosci. 2005 Apr 27;25(17):4217-21.

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